Learning Glossary
Operant Conditioning
- Operant Conditioning
- Learning in which behavior is followed by consequences that influence the likelihood that the behavior will occur again.
- Contingency
- A relationship in which the occurrence of one event depends upon the occurrence of another event.
- Skinner Box
- A device that provides a controlled environment for studying and measuring operant behavior.
- Rate of Responding
- The number of responses made during a particular period of time.
- Operant Response
- A behavior emitted by an organism that operates on its environment and may be affected by the consequences that follow it.
- Reinforcement
- A consequence that increases the likelihood that a behavior will occur again.
- Punishment
- A consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur again.
- Positive Reinforcer
- A stimulus presented following a response that increases the likelihood of that response occurring again.
- Negative Reinforcer
- A stimulus removed following a response that increases the likelihood of that response occurring again.
- Positive Punisher
- A stimulus presented following a response that decreases the likelihood of that response occurring again.
- Negative Punisher
- A stimulus removed following a response that decreases the likelihood of that response occurring again.
- Base Rate
- The rate at which a behavior occurs before conditioning or intervention begins.
- Primary Reinforcer
- A reinforcer whose effectiveness does not depend upon prior learning, such as food when hungry or water when thirsty.
- Secondary Reinforcer
- A learned reinforcer that acquires its reinforcing properties through experience or association with other reinforcers.
- Extinction
- A decrease in an operant behavior that occurs when the reinforcement that previously followed the behavior is discontinued.
- Shaping
- The reinforcement of successive approximations to a desired behavior until the complete behavior is established.
- Discrimination Learning
- Learning to respond differently depending upon the environmental stimuli that are present.
- Generalization
- Responding to stimuli similar to those present during conditioning as though they were the original conditioned stimuli.
- Reinforcement History
- An individual's previous experiences with reinforcement that influence the likelihood of present and future behavior.
Schedules of Reinforcement
- Schedule of Reinforcement
- The rule or pattern that determines when a response will be followed by reinforcement.
- Continuous Reinforcement
- A schedule in which every occurrence of the desired response is reinforced.
- Partial Reinforcement
- A schedule in which only some occurrences of the desired response are reinforced.
- Ratio Schedule
- A reinforcement schedule based on the number of responses made.
- Interval Schedule
- A reinforcement schedule based on the passage of time.
- Fixed Ratio Schedule
- Reinforcement is provided after a specific number of responses.
- Fixed Interval Schedule
- Reinforcement becomes available after a specific amount of time has passed.
- Variable Ratio Schedule
- Reinforcement is provided after a varying number of responses, centered around an average number of responses.
- Variable Interval Schedule
- Reinforcement becomes available after varying periods of time, centered around an average interval.
Behavior Modification
- Functional Analysis
- Careful observation and analysis used to determine the environmental events and consequences that influence a behavior.
- Behavior Modification
- The application of learning principles to change behavior. In Boeree's discussion of Skinner, undesirable behavior is extinguished by removing its reinforcement while desirable behavior is reinforced.
- Systematic Desensitization
- A behavior therapy developed by Joseph Wolpe in which a person gradually encounters increasingly anxiety-provoking situations while using a response, such as relaxation, that is incompatible with anxiety.
- Aversion Conditioning
- A procedure in which an unwanted behavior or stimulus is associated with an unpleasant or aversive stimulus in an attempt to reduce the unwanted response.
- Reinforcing Opposing Behaviors
- Reinforcing a behavior that is incompatible with, or contrary to, the behavior that is being reduced.
- Token Economy
- A behavior modification system in which appropriate behaviors are reinforced with tokens that can later be exchanged for desired items, activities, or privileges.
- Time Out
- Temporarily removing access to a reinforcing environment following an unwanted behavior, thereby reducing the reinforcement available for that behavior.
Skinner's View of Personality
- Traits
- From a behaviorist perspective, traits are descriptions of consistent patterns of behavior rather than internal causes that explain behavior.
- Mentalism
- Explaining behavior by appealing to internal mental states or constructs rather than observable behavior and environmental conditions. Skinner argued that psychology should concentrate on observable behavior and the environment in which it occurs.
- Freedom
- Skinner questioned the idea of freedom as an independent internal cause of behavior. In Boeree's discussion, feeling free is associated with behaving without obvious aversive control while behavior remains influenced by reinforcement.
- Dignity
- Skinner questioned dignity as an explanation based on personal credit for behavior. He argued that behavior attributed to dignity can instead be understood through a person's reinforcement history.
- Mentalistic Constructs
- Unobservable concepts used as explanations for behavior. Boeree notes that Skinner considered freedom, dignity, mind, ego, will, self, and personality examples of such constructs.
- Homunculus
- Literally "little man." Skinner used the term critically for the idea that an inner person, self, mind, or will exists inside us and causes our behavior. He rejected this kind of explanation in favor of studying observable behavior and environmental influences.
- Behavioral Technology
- Skinner's idea that principles of behavior and reinforcement can be deliberately applied to influence behavior and improve society.
- Design Culture
- Skinner's proposal that society can deliberately arrange environmental conditions and reinforcement so that desirable behavior is encouraged.
Arthur Staats
The following concepts are associated with Arthur Staats and are included because they are covered in the instructor's lectures on learning.
- Basic Behavioral Repertoires (BBRs)
- Collections of learned behaviors and abilities that develop through years of experience with stimuli, responses, and consequences. These behavioral repertoires influence later learning and behavior.
- Language / Cognitive Repertoires
- Learned language and cognitive behaviors that develop through experience and influence later thinking and behavior.
- Emotional / Motivational Repertoires
- Learned emotional and motivational responses that develop through experience and influence later behavior.
- Sensory / Motor Repertoires
- Learned sensory and motor behaviors and skills that develop through experience and influence later behavior.